Theories

Jeremy Bentham 邊沁
所谓自利选择原理,按边沁的说法是:什么是快乐、什么是痛苦,每个人自己知道最清楚,所以什么是幸福也是各个人所知道的。各个人在原则上是他自身幸福的最好判断者。同时,各个人追求一己的最大幸福,是具有理性的一切人的目的。在人类社会生活中,自利的选择占着支配地位。当人们进行各种活动的时候,凡是对自己的最大幸福能有最高的贡献,不管对自己以外的全体幸福会带来什么样的结果,他都会全力追求,这是人性的一种必然倾向。(wiki.mbalib.com)

Utilitarianism (效益主義/ 功利主義)
The highest principle of morality is to maximize happiness, the overall balance of pleasure over pain.

Objection 1: Individual Rights. Utilitarianism violates fundamental norms of decency and respect. E.g. throwing Christians to lions; torturing suspect; torturing young daughter of suspect; 
>>Human rights and human dignity have a moral basis that lies beyond utility.
Objection 2: Common Currency of Value. Is it possible to translate all moral goods into a single currency of value without losing something in the translation? E.g. Cost-benefit analysis (smoking in Czech; Ford Pinto; vehicle speed limit; Edward Thorndike’s survey)

>>It is not possible to measure and compare all values and goods on a single scale.

Principles of Morals and Legislation (1780)
Official Resource Page Link

John Stuart Mill密尔(米爾)
People should be free to do whatever they want, provided they do no harm to others. “independence is ,of right,absolute. Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is soverign”. Mill thinks we should maximize utility, not case by case, but in the long run. And over time, he argues, respecting individual liberty will lead to the greatest human happiness.
  • Actions and consequences are not all that matter after all, character also counts
  • Higher pleasure & lower pleasure-to assess the quality, not just the quantity or intensity, of our desires. >>the higher pleasures are not higher because we prefer them; we prefer them because we recognize them as higher.( it engages our highest faculties and makes us more fully human.)
Utilitarianism, J.S.Mill (1863) Official Resource Page Link

Libertarianism (放任自由主義/右翼自由主義)
Libertarians favour unfettered markets and oppose government regulation, not in the name of economic efficiency but in the name of human freedom. Their central claim is that each of us has a fundamental right to liberty – the right to do whatever we want with the things we own, provided we respect other people’s rights to do the same.

Libertarianism (Latin: liber, "free")[1] is a set of related political philosophies that uphold liberty as the highest political end.[2][3] This includes emphasis on the primacy of individual liberty,[4][5] political freedom, and voluntary association. It is an antonym of authoritarianism.[6] Although libertarians share a skepticism of governmental authority, they diverge on the extent and character of their opposition. Different schools of libertarianism offer a range of views concerning the legitimate functions of government, while others contend that the state should not exist at all. For instance, minarchists propose a state limited in scope to preventing aggression, theft, breach of contract and fraud, while anarchists advocate its complete elimination as a political system.[7][8][9][10][11][12] While some libertarians advocate laissez-faire capitalism and private property rights, such as in land and natural resources, others wish to abolish capitalism and private ownership of the means of production in favor of common or cooperative ownership and management (see libertarian socialism). 放任自由主義(Libertarianism),亦被譯為自由人主義、自由意志主義、自由意志論、自由至上主義、自由至上論等。放任自由主義是一種主張只要個人不侵犯他人的同等自由,個人應該享有絕對的自由以其自身和財產從事任何活動的政治哲學[1]。放任自由主義者的基本準則為:任何人類的互動行為都應該出於雙方的自願和同意,任何利用暴力或詐欺手段侵犯他人權利和財產的舉動都是違反了這種準則。因此除了對付他人先行侵略的反擊外,放任自由主義者反對任何形式的暴力行為。「放任自由主義」肯定的不是自由本身,而是某種類型的自由,其範圍是由自我所有論(the thesis of self-ownership)所界定的。[2] (Wikipedia)

Liberalism (自由主義/左翼自由主義)
自由主義最根本的理念,是將人理解為自由人,具有平等的道德地位,並願意在一起進行公平的社會合作,從而確保每個公民享有充分的自由和足夠的社會資源,去好好追求和實現自己的美好人生。這是自由主義的出發點。這個理念看似平平無奇,背後卻反映自由主義獨特的政治理想:

……首先,自由主義認為政治和道德密不可分。政治生活的最高目的,不是權力鬥爭,不是區分敵我,不是人壓迫人,而是根據正義原則建立一個道德社群,保障人的基本權利,實現人的根本利益,並令得政治權力的行使具有正當性……

……第二,自由主義是以個體為本的政治哲學。自由主義先將人理解為獨立自主,擁有反思意識和價值意識,並有自己人生計劃的個體,然後從個體的視角,追問怎樣的政治秩序才能合理地保障和促進人的根本利益……

……第三,既然自由主義將人理解為可作獨立思考和理性判斷的自主個體,那麼它一定要容許和尊重人們的思想和行動自由。自由的重要,不僅在於人有選擇的能力,也在於人的多元性。……

……第四,自由主義堅持人人平等。所謂平等,是指就每個公民作為獨立自主的自由人這一身分而言,每個人具有平等的道德地位。 (參: 周保松,《自由人的平等政治》230-237頁)

Robert Nozick
Justice in initial holdings. Whether the resources you used to make your money were legitimately yours in the first place.
Justice in transfer (free market). Whether you made your money either through free exchanges in the market-place or from gifts voluntarily bestowed upon you by others.

John Locke on Egalitarianism
Egalitarianism in politics can be of at least two forms. One form is equality of persons in right, sometimes referred to as natural rights; John Locke is sometimes considered the founder of this form.[10] The slogan "Liberté, égalité, fraternité" was used during the French Revolution and is still used as an official slogan of the French government. (Wikipedia)

Second Treaties of Government, John Locke (1690)
Official Resource Page Link


Immanuel Kant

Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals, Immanuel Kant (1785)
Official Resource Page Link


John Rawls

A Theory of Justice, John Rawls (1971)
Official Resource Page Link

Beyond the veil of ignorance (無知之幕)
羅爾斯認為在「原初立場」中,每個人可再被設定於「無知之幕」之後,他將沒有任何先備的知識,可以讓自已有機會作有利自身的資源分配,他沒有種族、性別、喜好的特定考量,由於他不知道自已所代表的人是誰,基於理性,他不可能選擇一個完全忽視少數人權益,只追求多數人快樂的功利主義制度,因為這有可能令自已落入全盤皆輸的景況。如此推論,維護基本人權以保障弱勢權益乃第一原則。

Difference Principle (差異原則)
當代美國哲學家羅爾斯(John Rawls)在其巨著《正義論》(A Theory of Justice)中提出,只有在對社會中受益最少者(the least advantaged)最為有利的情況下,經濟不平等分配才可以被接受。 任何以社會整體利益、私有產權、人的自利動機乃至經濟效率等理由來為財富差異辯護的理由,均不成立。所謂受益最少者,是指那些由於秉賦能力較差,來自低下階層或貧困家庭,又或由於在生活中運氣較差,從而成為社會中收入最差,或社會階級最低的人。 差異原則實則意味著:除非一個不平等分配能夠同時改善受益最少者的生活境況,否則平等分配便更為可取。(75/ 66)羅爾斯相信,一個滿足差異原則的社會,雖然仍然存在分配不平等的情況,但不平等的程度,會較今日西方福利社會還要低得多。羅爾斯稱此為一個「民主式的平等」(democratic equality)的社會。(摘錄自周保松,〈道德平等、分配正義與差異原則〉。http://www.douban.com/group/topic/32115021/)

正義原則
羅爾斯認為,一個正義社會,必須滿足以下兩條原則:
1. 每個人都有平等的權利,在與所有人相類似的自由體系兼容的情況下,享有最廣泛的總體由體系所賦予的相同的基本自由。
2. 社會和經濟的不平等應該這樣安排:
    a.) 在和公正的儲蓄原則一致的前提下,對社會中最弱勢的人最為有利;
    b.) 在公平的平等機會的條件下,職位與工作向所有人開放。
(參: 周保松,《自由人的平等政治》頁12)

Aristotle

The Politics, Aristotle 
Official Resource Page Link

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